Reading Recovery
Study: Center et al. (1995)

Summary

Reading Recovery is a short-term intervention of daily one-to-one lessons that supplement good classroom teaching for the lowest-achieving first graders. The goal is to dramatically reduce the number of first- grade children with extreme difficulty learning to read and write and to reduce the cost of these learners to educational systems. The lowest literacy achievers in Grade 1 receive a half-hour lesson each school day for 12-20 weeks with a specially trained Reading Recovery teacher. Daily and weekly records provide rich information for progress monitoring. As soon as children meet grade-level expectations and can continue to learn in the classroom, their lessons are discontinued, and new students begin individual instruction. Just as in the intent of RTI, two positive outcomes are possible: (a) responding to the intervention by meeting grade-level literacy expectations (approximately 75% of the children with complete interventions) and (b) recommended for further evaluation and future support. The intent of Reading Recovery lessons is to promote accelerated learning so that students can catch up with their peers and benefit from classroom instruction without supplemental help. Each lesson is individually designed and individually delivered by specially trained teachers and includes reading familiar books, reading yesterday’s new book while the teacher takes a running record, working with letters and/or words using magnetic letters, composing a written message, assembling a cut-up story, and reading a new book. Extensive training is required for the responsive, contingent teaching in Reading Recovery. Three levels of training form a network of expertise and support: (a) university-based trainers of teacher leaders; (b) site-based teacher leaders who train teachers; and (c) school-based teachers who deliver the intervention on their campuses. Reading Recovery is an intervention with internal and external cohesion to ensure fidelity of implementation, including • a published set of standards and guidelines for teaching, implementing, and evaluating the intervention; • a royalty-free trademark license; • an annual registry completed by each Reading Recovery site that verifies compliance with standards; • intensive year-long training for all levels of Reading Recovery professionals followed by ongoing professional development and support from teacher leaders and university trainers; • a standard lesson format within which teachers make decisions about each child; • annual evaluation of outcomes for every child in Reading Recovery by the International Data Evaluation Center; and • analysis of outcome and process data by university trainers who work with sites to ensure fidelity to the design of the implementation.

Target Grades:
1
Target Populations:
  • Any student at risk for academic failure
Area(s) of Focus:
  • Phonological awareness
  • Phonological awareness
  • Phonics/word study
  • Comprehension
  • Fluency
  • Vocabulary
  • Spelling
  • Sentence construction
  • Other:
Where to Obtain:
Marie M. Clay / Heinemann
500 W. Wilson Bridge Road, Suite 250 Worthington, Ohio 43085-5218
614-310-7323
www.readingrecovery.org
Initial Cost:
$2,807.00 per teacher
Replacement Cost:
Contact vendor for pricing details.

Costs are considered at the school, site/district, or teacher level. Initial per teacher costs for a new implementation in a school would include the cost of the year-long training (costs vary according to universities granting credit), the initial purchase of non-consumable children’s books to be used with students (about $2,500), professional books, materials, and supplies (approximately $250), and data processing fees (about $57). Because costs of tuition and non-consumable books are a one-time cost, initial costs of implementing Reading Recovery can be amortized across several years. The one-time district or site cost of constructing a training facility with a one-way glass/mirror if one is not available can also be amortized over many years. The cost of Reading Recovery per trained teacher is dramatically reduced after the first year. The only replacement costs are optional additions to the non-consumable set of books used with children and possible non-consumable professional books for teachers. Expenditures to the district/site include ongoing professional development, data processing fees, university affiliation fees if applicable, and miscellaneous supplies. The basic pricing structure is generally at a district/site level. The primary expenditures are related to initial and ongoing professional development for teachers (e.g., one-time cost of constructing a training facility if one is not available, university tuition and fees for teachers-in-training, professional books and materials). Books used with children are non-consumable and represent a one-time expenditure with annual replacements as needed. Annual data processing fees vary according to the size of the district/site, and university affiliation fees vary according to the university. Included in the published materials for teachers: Literacy Lessons Designed for Individuals includes teaching procedures and theoretical explanations of when and why a teacher would select particular procedures for particular children. An Observation Survey of Early Literacy Achievement includes screening tasks, norms, and information about reliability and validity. Not included but required: Initial training costs include university credit and fees for an academic year and the services of a registered teacher leader, access to a training facility with a one-way mirror, non-consumable books for use with children, non-consumable books for teachers. In subsequent years costs include ongoing professional development, data processing fees, university affiliation fees, optional new or replacement books for use with children, etc.

Staff Qualified to Administer Include:
  • Special Education Teacher
  • General Education Teacher
  • Reading Specialist
  • Math Specialist
  • EL Specialist
  • Interventionist
  • Student Support Services Personnel (e.g., counselor, social worker, school psychologist, etc.)
Training Requirements:
An academic year of training with university credit

For an academic year, teachers meet weekly with a registered Reading Recovery teacher leader who has completed a full year of training at a university training center to prepare for training teachers. While in training, teachers are also working with Reading Recovery students. Teachers learn to observe and discuss lessons behind a one-way mirror/glass. Course content for teacher classes focuses on the teachers’ ability to: • carefully observe and articulate children’s literacy behaviors; • select and use appropriate teaching procedures for each child; • design a series of daily lessons to meet the needs of each individual child; • critically evaluate their teaching decisions and those of their peers; • build a sound understanding of theoretical principles of reading and writing with attention to difficulties with literacy learning; • implement the intervention within the comprehensive literacy plan of the school; and • assess, monitor, and report the individual progress of each child in the intervention. Concurrent with the training, these teachers work with children in one-to-one lessons for part of the school day. Teacher leaders also make school visits and support implementation in schools. Teachers continue learning through scheduled professional development sessions in subsequent years. The key to Reading Recovery success lies with teacher expertise and decision making.


An Observation Survey of Early Literacy Achievement, 2nd Edition (Clay, 2002, 2006) is currently used for screening for literacy difficulties and assessing change over time. The observation tasks were developed over a number of years (1963-1978) and subsequently revised. The Early Detection of Reading Difficulties: A Diagnostic Survey (Clay, 1972) was followed by the first edition of the Observation Survey in 1993. These books have been trialed with thousands of children across the years and subsequent revisions followed. The six Observation Survey tasks provide a way to observe early literacy learning behaviors. Tasks have high construct and face validity. Validity and reliability data and norms are provided in the 2006 edition of the Observation Survey. The Observation Survey is also available in a bilingual Spanish version for Descubriendo la Lectura. Books used for training Reading Recovery professionals also have evolved after trials with children. Each revision also accommodated new theoretical understandings and explanations. • The Early Detection of Reading Difficulties: A Diagnostic Survey with Recovery Procedures (Clay, 1979) • The Early Detection of Reading Difficulties (Clay, 1983) • Reading Recovery: A Guidebook for Teachers in Training (Clay, 1993) • Literacy Lessons Designed for Individuals Part One and Part Two (Clay, 2005) Literacy Lessons Designed for Individuals is currently the core training text. Teaching procedures are accompanied by rationales and explanations. The book is not a script for instruction. During the training, teachers learn to select from the procedures based on the current needs of each child; teachers learn to make decisions to foster each child’s literacy learning. During the training, additional texts and articles are used to supplement the learning of the teachers and teacher leaders.

Access to Technical Support:
Ongoing professional development is a requirement for all Reading Recovery professionals. Several professional development sessions are scheduled yearly and include continued observation of one-to-one teaching sessions. Reading Recovery teacher leaders also provide ongoing support to teachers at their schools.
Recommended Administration Formats Include:
  • Individual students
Minimum Number of Minutes Per Session:
30
Minimum Number of Sessions Per Week:
5
Minimum Number of Weeks:
12
Detailed Implementation Manual or Instructions Available:
Yes
Is Technology Required?
No technology is required.

Program Information

Descriptive Information

Please provide a description of program, including intended use:

Reading Recovery is a short-term intervention of daily one-to-one lessons that supplement good classroom teaching for the lowest-achieving first graders. The goal is to dramatically reduce the number of first- grade children with extreme difficulty learning to read and write and to reduce the cost of these learners to educational systems. The lowest literacy achievers in Grade 1 receive a half-hour lesson each school day for 12-20 weeks with a specially trained Reading Recovery teacher. Daily and weekly records provide rich information for progress monitoring. As soon as children meet grade-level expectations and can continue to learn in the classroom, their lessons are discontinued, and new students begin individual instruction. Just as in the intent of RTI, two positive outcomes are possible: (a) responding to the intervention by meeting grade-level literacy expectations (approximately 75% of the children with complete interventions) and (b) recommended for further evaluation and future support. The intent of Reading Recovery lessons is to promote accelerated learning so that students can catch up with their peers and benefit from classroom instruction without supplemental help. Each lesson is individually designed and individually delivered by specially trained teachers and includes reading familiar books, reading yesterday’s new book while the teacher takes a running record, working with letters and/or words using magnetic letters, composing a written message, assembling a cut-up story, and reading a new book. Extensive training is required for the responsive, contingent teaching in Reading Recovery. Three levels of training form a network of expertise and support: (a) university-based trainers of teacher leaders; (b) site-based teacher leaders who train teachers; and (c) school-based teachers who deliver the intervention on their campuses. Reading Recovery is an intervention with internal and external cohesion to ensure fidelity of implementation, including • a published set of standards and guidelines for teaching, implementing, and evaluating the intervention; • a royalty-free trademark license; • an annual registry completed by each Reading Recovery site that verifies compliance with standards; • intensive year-long training for all levels of Reading Recovery professionals followed by ongoing professional development and support from teacher leaders and university trainers; • a standard lesson format within which teachers make decisions about each child; • annual evaluation of outcomes for every child in Reading Recovery by the International Data Evaluation Center; and • analysis of outcome and process data by university trainers who work with sites to ensure fidelity to the design of the implementation.

The program is intended for use in the following age(s) and/or grade(s).

not selected Age 0-3
not selected Age 3-5
not selected Kindergarten
selected First grade
not selected Second grade
not selected Third grade
not selected Fourth grade
not selected Fifth grade
not selected Sixth grade
not selected Seventh grade
not selected Eighth grade
not selected Ninth grade
not selected Tenth grade
not selected Eleventh grade
not selected Twelth grade


The program is intended for use with the following groups.

not selected Students with disabilities only
not selected Students with learning disabilities
not selected Students with intellectual disabilities
not selected Students with emotional or behavioral disabilities
not selected English language learners
selected Any student at risk for academic failure
not selected Any student at risk for emotional and/or behavioral difficulties
not selected Other
If other, please describe:

ACADEMIC INTERVENTION: Please indicate the academic area of focus.

Early Literacy

not selected Print knowledge/awareness
not selected Alphabet knowledge
selected Phonological awareness
not selected Phonological awarenessEarly writing
not selected Early decoding abilities
not selected Other

If other, please describe:

Language

not selected Expressive and receptive vocabulary
not selected Grammar
not selected Syntax
not selected Listening comprehension
not selected Other
If other, please describe:

Reading

selected Phonological awareness
selected Phonics/word study
selected Comprehension
selected Fluency
selected Vocabulary
not selected Spelling
not selected Other
If other, please describe:

Mathematics

not selected Computation
not selected Concepts and/or word problems
not selected Whole number arithmetic
not selected Comprehensive: Includes computation/procedures, problem solving, and mathematical concepts
not selected Algebra
not selected Fractions, decimals (rational number)
not selected Geometry and measurement
not selected Other
If other, please describe:

Writing

not selected Handwriting
selected Spelling
selected Sentence construction
not selected Planning and revising
selected Other
If other, please describe:

BEHAVIORAL INTERVENTION: Please indicate the behavior area of focus.

Externalizing Behavior

not selected Physical Aggression
not selected Verbal Threats
not selected Property Destruction
not selected Noncompliance
not selected High Levels of Disengagement
not selected Disruptive Behavior
not selected Social Behavior (e.g., Peer interactions, Adult interactions)
not selected Other
If other, please describe:

Internalizing Behavior

not selected Depression
not selected Anxiety
not selected Social Difficulties (e.g., withdrawal)
not selected School Phobia
not selected Other
If other, please describe:

Acquisition and cost information

Where to obtain:

Address
500 W. Wilson Bridge Road, Suite 250 Worthington, Ohio 43085-5218
Phone Number
614-310-7323
Website
www.readingrecovery.org

Initial cost for implementing program:

Cost
$2807.00
Unit of cost
teacher

Replacement cost per unit for subsequent use:

Cost
Unit of cost
Duration of license

Additional cost information:

Describe basic pricing plan and structure of the program. Also, provide information on what is included in the published program, as well as what is not included but required for implementation (e.g., computer and/or internet access)

Costs are considered at the school, site/district, or teacher level. Initial per teacher costs for a new implementation in a school would include the cost of the year-long training (costs vary according to universities granting credit), the initial purchase of non-consumable children’s books to be used with students (about $2,500), professional books, materials, and supplies (approximately $250), and data processing fees (about $57). Because costs of tuition and non-consumable books are a one-time cost, initial costs of implementing Reading Recovery can be amortized across several years. The one-time district or site cost of constructing a training facility with a one-way glass/mirror if one is not available can also be amortized over many years. The cost of Reading Recovery per trained teacher is dramatically reduced after the first year. The only replacement costs are optional additions to the non-consumable set of books used with children and possible non-consumable professional books for teachers. Expenditures to the district/site include ongoing professional development, data processing fees, university affiliation fees if applicable, and miscellaneous supplies. The basic pricing structure is generally at a district/site level. The primary expenditures are related to initial and ongoing professional development for teachers (e.g., one-time cost of constructing a training facility if one is not available, university tuition and fees for teachers-in-training, professional books and materials). Books used with children are non-consumable and represent a one-time expenditure with annual replacements as needed. Annual data processing fees vary according to the size of the district/site, and university affiliation fees vary according to the university. Included in the published materials for teachers: Literacy Lessons Designed for Individuals includes teaching procedures and theoretical explanations of when and why a teacher would select particular procedures for particular children. An Observation Survey of Early Literacy Achievement includes screening tasks, norms, and information about reliability and validity. Not included but required: Initial training costs include university credit and fees for an academic year and the services of a registered teacher leader, access to a training facility with a one-way mirror, non-consumable books for use with children, non-consumable books for teachers. In subsequent years costs include ongoing professional development, data processing fees, university affiliation fees, optional new or replacement books for use with children, etc.

Program Specifications

Setting for which the program is designed.

selected Individual students
not selected Small group of students
not selected BI ONLY: A classroom of students

If group-delivered, how many students compose a small group?

  

Program administration time

Minimum number of minutes per session
30
Minimum number of sessions per week
5
Minimum number of weeks
12
not selected N/A (implemented until effective)

If intervention program is intended to occur over less frequently than 60 minutes a week for approximately 8 weeks, justify the level of intensity:

Does the program include highly specified teacher manuals or step by step instructions for implementation?
Yes

BEHAVIORAL INTERVENTION: Is the program affiliated with a broad school- or class-wide management program?

If yes, please identify and describe the broader school- or class-wide management program:

Does the program require technology?
No

If yes, what technology is required to implement your program?
not selected Computer or tablet
not selected Internet connection
not selected Other technology (please specify)

If your program requires additional technology not listed above, please describe the required technology and the extent to which it is combined with teacher small-group instruction/intervention:
Technology is not required for the intervention with children. However, required data are sent electronically to the International Data Evaluation Center (IDEC).

Training

How many people are needed to implement the program ?

Is training for the instructor or interventionist required?
Yes
If yes, is the necessary training free or at-cost?
At-cost

Describe the time required for instructor or interventionist training:
An academic year of training with university credit

Describe the format and content of the instructor or interventionist training:
For an academic year, teachers meet weekly with a registered Reading Recovery teacher leader who has completed a full year of training at a university training center to prepare for training teachers. While in training, teachers are also working with Reading Recovery students. Teachers learn to observe and discuss lessons behind a one-way mirror/glass. Course content for teacher classes focuses on the teachers’ ability to: • carefully observe and articulate children’s literacy behaviors; • select and use appropriate teaching procedures for each child; • design a series of daily lessons to meet the needs of each individual child; • critically evaluate their teaching decisions and those of their peers; • build a sound understanding of theoretical principles of reading and writing with attention to difficulties with literacy learning; • implement the intervention within the comprehensive literacy plan of the school; and • assess, monitor, and report the individual progress of each child in the intervention. Concurrent with the training, these teachers work with children in one-to-one lessons for part of the school day. Teacher leaders also make school visits and support implementation in schools. Teachers continue learning through scheduled professional development sessions in subsequent years. The key to Reading Recovery success lies with teacher expertise and decision making.

What types or professionals are qualified to administer your program?

selected Special Education Teacher
selected General Education Teacher
selected Reading Specialist
selected Math Specialist
selected EL Specialist
selected Interventionist
selected Student Support Services Personnel (e.g., counselor, social worker, school psychologist, etc.)
not selected Applied Behavior Analysis (ABA) Therapist or Board Certified Behavior Analyst (BCBA)
not selected Paraprofessional
not selected Other

If other, please describe:

Does the program assume that the instructor or interventionist has expertise in a given area?
Yes   

If yes, please describe: 

When selecting Reading Recovery teachers, schools are encouraged to consider teaching experience, preferably with primary-grade students. During and after the training year, Reading Recovery teachers gain expertise in observing, assessing, and monitoring progress of literacy learners as well as selecting appropriate teaching procedures for each child. Teachers build a strong theoretical foundation and knowledge base to support their work with children who are having literacy difficulties. Their expertise includes implementing the intervention in the school and collaborating with others to support each child’s learning.

Are training manuals and materials available?
Yes

Describe how the training manuals or materials were field-tested with the target population of instructors or interventionist and students:
An Observation Survey of Early Literacy Achievement, 2nd Edition (Clay, 2002, 2006) is currently used for screening for literacy difficulties and assessing change over time. The observation tasks were developed over a number of years (1963-1978) and subsequently revised. The Early Detection of Reading Difficulties: A Diagnostic Survey (Clay, 1972) was followed by the first edition of the Observation Survey in 1993. These books have been trialed with thousands of children across the years and subsequent revisions followed. The six Observation Survey tasks provide a way to observe early literacy learning behaviors. Tasks have high construct and face validity. Validity and reliability data and norms are provided in the 2006 edition of the Observation Survey. The Observation Survey is also available in a bilingual Spanish version for Descubriendo la Lectura. Books used for training Reading Recovery professionals also have evolved after trials with children. Each revision also accommodated new theoretical understandings and explanations. • The Early Detection of Reading Difficulties: A Diagnostic Survey with Recovery Procedures (Clay, 1979) • The Early Detection of Reading Difficulties (Clay, 1983) • Reading Recovery: A Guidebook for Teachers in Training (Clay, 1993) • Literacy Lessons Designed for Individuals Part One and Part Two (Clay, 2005) Literacy Lessons Designed for Individuals is currently the core training text. Teaching procedures are accompanied by rationales and explanations. The book is not a script for instruction. During the training, teachers learn to select from the procedures based on the current needs of each child; teachers learn to make decisions to foster each child’s literacy learning. During the training, additional texts and articles are used to supplement the learning of the teachers and teacher leaders.

Do you provide fidelity of implementation guidance such as a checklist for implementation in your manual?

Can practitioners obtain ongoing professional and technical support?
Yes

If yes, please specify where/how practitioners can obtain support:

Ongoing professional development is a requirement for all Reading Recovery professionals. Several professional development sessions are scheduled yearly and include continued observation of one-to-one teaching sessions. Reading Recovery teacher leaders also provide ongoing support to teachers at their schools.

Summary of Evidence Base

Please identify, to the best of your knowledge, all the research studies that have been conducted to date supporting the efficacy of your program, including studies currently or previously submitted to NCII for review. Please provide citations only (in APA format); do not include any descriptive information on these studies. NCII staff will also conduct a search to confirm that the list you provide is accurate.

May, H., Sirinides, P., Gray, A., & Goldsworthy, H. (2016). Reading Recovery: An evaluation of the four-year i3 scale-up. Retrieved from: http://www.cpre.org/reading-recovery-evaluation-four-year-i3-scale

 May, H., Sirinides, P., Goldworthy, H., Armijo, M., Sam, C., Gillespie, J. N., & Tognatta, N. (2015). Year One Results From the Multisite Randomized Evaluation of the i3 Scale-Up of Reading Recovery. American Educational Research Journal, 52(547-581).

Study Information

Study Citations

Center, Y., Wheldall, K., Freeman, L., Outhred, L. & McNaught, M. (1995). An Evaluation of Reading Recovery. Reading Research Quarterly, 30() 240-263.

Participants Full Bobble

Describe how students were selected to participate in the study:
Participants came from 10 schools in New South Wales where Reading Recovery was operating and 5 matched schools from the same educational region, socioeconomic level, and size. In each school, year 1 teachers and kindergarten teachers from the previous year were asked to identify about 20 first-year students whom they considered to be at greatest risk of reading failure after one year at school. These children were assessed with Clay’s Diagnostic Survey (the current version of this assessment is An Observation Survey of Early Literacy Achievement). The lowest 12 students in each school were then randomly assigned to the Reading Recovery treatment group, the control group, and a buffer group who would enter Reading Recovery after the treatment group students completed their intervention period. This buffer group was intended to delay the entry of low performing students in the control group being shifted to the Reading Recovery intervention. The comparison group was 39 low performing students in matched schools that did not have Reading Recovery service. This group provides a quasi-experimental comparison group against which the progress of the treatment group can be compared.

Describe how students were identified as being at risk for academic failure (AI) or as having emotional or behavioral difficulties (BI):
Participants in the RR treatment and the comparison schools were identified by their teachers as children whom they consider to be at great risk of reading failure after one year at school. In each of these schools the RR teacher administered the Clay Diagnostic Survey to these children, and then the 12 lowest achieving students from each of these schools were selected to participate in the research.

ACADEMIC INTERVENTION: What percentage of participants were at risk, as measured by one or more of the following criteria:
  • below the 30th percentile on local or national norm, or
  • identified disability related to the focus of the intervention?
%

BEHAVIORAL INTERVENTION: What percentage of participants were at risk, as measured by one or more of the following criteria:
  • emotional disability label,
  • placed in an alternative school/classroom,
  • non-responsive to Tiers 1 and 2, or
  • designation of severe problem behaviors on a validated scale or through observation?
%

Specify which condition is the submitted intervention:
The treatment group is labeled as Reading Recovery in the article.

Specify which condition is the control condition:
Low readers from 10 schools were randomly assigned to either the Reading Recovery treatment or a Control group. A quasi-experimental Comparison group was established in five matched schools.

If you have a third, competing condition, in addition to your control and intervention condition, identify what the competing condition is (data from this competing condition will not be used):

Using the tables that follow, provide data demonstrating comparability of the program group and control group in terms of demographics.

Grade Level

Demographic Program
Number		 Control
Number		 Effect Size: Cox Index
for Binary Differences
Age less than 1
Age 1
Age 2
Age 3
Age 4
Age 5
Kindergarten
Grade 1 100.0% 100.0% 0.00
Grade 2
Grade 3
Grade 4
Grade 5
Grade 6
Grade 7
Grade 8
Grade 9
Grade 10
Grade 11
Grade 12

Race–Ethnicity

Demographic Program
Number		 Control
Number		 Effect Size: Cox Index
for Binary Differences
African American
American Indian
Asian/Pacific Islander
Hispanic
White
Other

Socioeconomic Status

Demographic Program
Number		 Control
Number		 Effect Size: Cox Index
for Binary Differences
Subsidized Lunch
No Subsidized Lunch

Disability Status

Demographic Program
Number		 Control
Number		 Effect Size: Cox Index
for Binary Differences
Speech-Language Impairments
Learning Disabilities
Behavior Disorders
Emotional Disturbance
Intellectual Disabilities
Other
Not Identified With a Disability

ELL Status

Demographic Program
Number		 Control
Number		 Effect Size: Cox Index
for Binary Differences
English Language Learner
Not English Language Learner

Gender

Demographic Program
Number		 Control
Number		 Effect Size: Cox Index
for Binary Differences
Female
Male

Mean Effect Size

0.00

For any substantively (e.g., effect size ≥ 0.25 for pretest or demographic differences) or statistically significant (e.g., p < 0.05) pretest differences between groups in the descriptions below, please describe the extent to which these differences are related to the impact of the treatment. For example, if analyses were conducted to determine that outcomes from this study are due to the intervention and not demographic characteristics, please describe the results of those analyses here.

Design Empty Bobble

What method was used to determine students' placement in treatment/control groups?
Systematic
Please describe the assignment method or the process for defining treatment/comparison groups.
The study includes both a random control group and a matched, quasi-experimental comparison group.

What was the unit of assignment?
Students
If other, please specify:

Please describe the unit of assignment:

What unit(s) were used for primary data analysis?
not selected Schools
not selected Teachers
selected Students
not selected Classes
not selected Other
If other, please specify:

Please describe the unit(s) used for primary data analysis:

Fidelity of Implementation Empty Bobble

How was the program delivered?
selected Individually
not selected Small Group
not selected Classroom

If small group, answer the following:

Average group size
Minimum group size
Maximum group size

What was the duration of the intervention (If duration differed across participants, settings, or behaviors, describe for each.)?

Weeks
15.00
Sessions per week
5.00
Duration of sessions in minutes
30.00
What were the background, experience, training, and ongoing support of the instructors or interventionists?
This was a standard Reading Recovery implementation. Teachers had participated in the initial training year and ongoing professional development as described above.

Describe when and how fidelity of treatment information was obtained.
Reading Recovery teachers follow a standard lesson format, but make individual decisions within that framework to accelerate the progress of individual students. Training ensures fidelity of treatment. Teacher leaders also observe lessons and monitor fidelity as part of their roles in providing support to the teachers. All of the teachers participating in this study had completed the professional development experiences required to be certified Reading Recovery teachers and were continuing to participate in ongoing professional development, which includes visits by Reading Recovery teacher leaders to observe lessons with students. Systematic observation of each RR teacher for one session with each of 4 students, by trained researcher, was undertaken in April 1991 when teachers had spent 6 weeks with their students. A short observation form covering the seven components of the program was used and specific and general instances of positive/negative reinforcement were also recorded.

What were the results on the fidelity-of-treatment implementation measure?
The observers indicated that all RR teachers included the seven mandatory components in their individualized sessions, all students remained on task for almost the entire intervention period, and a large amount of positive reinforcement was provided by all teachers to all of their students.

Was the fidelity measure also used in control classrooms?

Measures and Results

Measures Targeted : Full Bobble
Measures Broader : Half Bobble
Targeted Measure Reverse Coded? Reliability Relevance Exposure
Broader Measure Reverse Coded? Reliability Relevance Exposure
Administrative Data Measure Reverse Coded? Relevance

Effect Size

Effect size represents the how much performance changed because of the intervention. The larger the effect size, the greater the impact participating in the intervention had.

According to guidelines from the What Works Clearinghouse, an effect size of 0.25 or greater is “substantively important.” Additionally, effect sizes that are statistically significant are more trustworthy than effect sizes of the same magnitude that are not statistically significant.

Effect Size Dial

The purpose of the effect size dial is to help users understand the strength of a tool relative to other tools on the Tools Chart.

  • The range represents where most effect sizes fall within reading or math based on effect sizes from tools on the Tools Chart.
  • The orange pointer shows the average effect size for this study.

Targeted Measures (Full Sample)

1.45*
Average Reading Effect Size

Measure Sample Type Effect Size
Average across all targeted measures Full Sample 1.45*
* = p ≤ 0.05; † = Vendor did not provide necessary data for NCII to calculate effect sizes.

Broader Measures (Full Sample)

0.90*
Average Reading Effect Size

Measure Sample Type Effect Size
Average across all broader measures Full Sample 0.90*
* = p ≤ 0.05; † = Vendor did not provide necessary data for NCII to calculate effect sizes.

Administrative Measures (Full Sample)

Measure Sample Type Effect Size
Average across all admin measures Full Sample --
* = p ≤ 0.05; † = Vendor did not provide necessary data for NCII to calculate effect sizes.

Targeted Measures (Subgroups)

Measure Sample Type Effect Size
* = p ≤ 0.05; † = Vendor did not provide necessary data for NCII to calculate effect sizes.

Broader Measures (Subgroups)

Measure Sample Type Effect Size
* = p ≤ 0.05; † = Vendor did not provide necessary data for NCII to calculate effect sizes.

Administrative Measures (Subgroups)

Measure Sample Type Effect Size
* = p ≤ 0.05; † = Vendor did not provide necessary data for NCII to calculate effect sizes.
For any substantively (e.g., effect size ≥ 0.25 for pretest or demographic differences) or statistically significant (e.g., p < 0.05) pretest differences, please describe the extent to which these differences are related to the impact of the treatment. For example, if analyses were conducted to determine that outcomes from this study are due to the intervention and not pretest characteristics, please describe the results of those analyses here.
Please explain any missing data or instances of measures with incomplete pre- or post-test data.
If you have excluded a variable or data that are reported in the study being submitted, explain the rationale for exclusion:
Describe the analyses used to determine whether the intervention produced changes in student outcomes:
Center et al. provide MANOVA and follow-up comparisons to indicate that the Reading Recovery group scores were significantly higher than the control group on the posttest immediately following the intervention and at the end-of-year (short-term maintenance) on measures of passage and word reading. See Results section, pp. 251-253. Table 3 on page 251 shows pretest means and standard deviations; Table 4 on page 252 shows posttest measures at the end of the intervention; Table 5 on page 253 shows means and standard deviations 15 weeks after the posttest. Based on the pretest scores it appears that the Comparison group is better matched to the Reading Recovery group than the random Control group. Even with the slightly higher pretest scores for the Comparison group, their rate of progress from pretest to posttest is much more similar to the rate of progress for the Control group than the higher rate of progress for the Reading Recovery treatment. Scores from Table 4 and Table 7 can be combined to calculate effect sizes for the Reading Recovery group relative to the Comparison group. At medium-term maintenance (12 months after the intervention posttest), the Reading Recovery group can no longer be evaluated against the control group since the lowest readers from the control group have entered Reading Recovery. The Comparison group still provides an equivalent group against which to judge the Reading Recovery treatment effects one year after the intervention. Center et al. do not report this analysis, but they do provide the means and standard deviations for these groups in Table 9, p. 255. They also provide the individual scores for these groups on seven variables in Tables 10 & 12.

Additional Research

Is the program reviewed by WWC or E-ESSA?
WWC & E-ESSA
Summary of WWC / E-ESSA Findings :

 

What Works Clearinghouse Review

Beginning Readers Protocol

Effectiveness: Reading Recovery® was found to have positive effects on alphabetics and general reading achievement and potentially positive effects on fluency and comprehension.

Studies Reviewed: 3 studies meet standards out of 79 studies total

Full Report

English Language Learners Protocol

Effectiveness: No studies of Reading Recovery® that fall within the scope of the English Language Learners (ELL) review protocol meet What Works Clearinghouse (WWC) evidence standards. The lack of studies meeting WWC evidence standards means that, at this time, the WWC is unable to draw any conclusions based on research about the effectiveness or ineffectiveness of Reading Recovery® on ELL.

Studies Reviewed: N/A

Full Report

 

Evidence for ESSA

Program Outcomes: Reading Recovery has been evaluated in four qualifying studies (many other studies did not qualify because they only reported outcomes for successful students, or used developer-made measures). In comparison to control groups, the average effect size across the four studies was +0.43 on measures such as ITBS, CAT, Woodcock, and Gates. These outcomes qualify Reading Recovery for the ESSA “Strong” category, and for the “Solid Outcomes” rating (at least two studies with effect sizes of at least +0.20).

Number of Studies: 4

Average Effect Size: 0.43

Full Report

 

How many additional research studies are potentially eligible for NCII review?
3
Citations for Additional Research Studies :

Baenen, N., Bernhole, A., Dulaney, C., & Banks, K. (1997). Reading Recovery: Long-term progress after three cohorts. Journal of Education for Students Placed at Risk, 2(2), 161.

Pinnell, G. S., DeFord, D. E., & Lyons, C. A. (1988). Reading Recovery: Early intervention for at-risk first graders (Educational Research Service Monograph). Arlington, VA: Educational Research Service.

Pinnell, G. S., Lyons, C. A., DeFord, D. E., Bryk, A. S., & Seltzer, M. (1994). Comparing instructional models for the literacy education of high-risk first graders. Reading Research Quarterly, 29(1), 8–39.

Data Collection Practices

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Summary

Program Information
Descriptive Information
Program Specifications
Training
Evidence Base

Study Information
Study Citations
Participants
Design
Fidelity of Implementation
Measures and Results

Additional Research

Data Collection Practices