Reading Recovery
Study: Schwartz (2005)
Summary
Reading Recovery is a short-term intervention of daily one-to-one lessons that supplement good classroom teaching for the lowest-achieving first graders. The goal is to dramatically reduce the number of first- grade children with extreme difficulty learning to read and write and to reduce the cost of these learners to educational systems. The lowest literacy achievers in Grade 1 receive a half-hour lesson each school day for 12-20 weeks with a specially trained Reading Recovery teacher. Daily and weekly records provide rich information for progress monitoring. As soon as children meet grade-level expectations and can continue to learn in the classroom, their lessons are discontinued, and new students begin individual instruction. Just as in the intent of RTI, two positive outcomes are possible: (a) responding to the intervention by meeting grade-level literacy expectations (approximately 75% of the children with complete interventions) and (b) recommended for further evaluation and future support. The intent of Reading Recovery lessons is to promote accelerated learning so that students can catch up with their peers and benefit from classroom instruction without supplemental help. Each lesson is individually designed and individually delivered by specially trained teachers and includes reading familiar books, reading yesterday’s new book while the teacher takes a running record, working with letters and/or words using magnetic letters, composing a written message, assembling a cut-up story, and reading a new book. Extensive training is required for the responsive, contingent teaching in Reading Recovery. Three levels of training form a network of expertise and support: (a) university-based trainers of teacher leaders; (b) site-based teacher leaders who train teachers; and (c) school-based teachers who deliver the intervention on their campuses. Reading Recovery is an intervention with internal and external cohesion to ensure fidelity of implementation, including • a published set of standards and guidelines for teaching, implementing, and evaluating the intervention; • a royalty-free trademark license; • an annual registry completed by each Reading Recovery site that verifies compliance with standards; • intensive year-long training for all levels of Reading Recovery professionals followed by ongoing professional development and support from teacher leaders and university trainers; • a standard lesson format within which teachers make decisions about each child; • annual evaluation of outcomes for every child in Reading Recovery by the International Data Evaluation Center; and • analysis of outcome and process data by university trainers who work with sites to ensure fidelity to the design of the implementation.
- Target Grades:
- 1
- Target Populations:
-
- Any student at risk for academic failure
- Area(s) of Focus:
-
- Phonological awareness
- Phonological awareness
- Phonics/word study
- Comprehension
- Fluency
- Vocabulary
- Spelling
- Sentence construction
- Other:
- Where to Obtain:
- Marie M. Clay / Heinemann
- 500 W. Wilson Bridge Road, Suite 250 Worthington, Ohio 43085-5218
- 614-310-7323
- www.readingrecovery.org
- Initial Cost:
- $2,807.00 per teacher
- Replacement Cost:
- Contact vendor for pricing details.
-
Costs are considered at the school, site/district, or teacher level. Initial per teacher costs for a new implementation in a school would include the cost of the year-long training (costs vary according to universities granting credit), the initial purchase of non-consumable children’s books to be used with students (about $2,500), professional books, materials, and supplies (approximately $250), and data processing fees (about $57). Because costs of tuition and non-consumable books are a one-time cost, initial costs of implementing Reading Recovery can be amortized across several years. The one-time district or site cost of constructing a training facility with a one-way glass/mirror if one is not available can also be amortized over many years. The cost of Reading Recovery per trained teacher is dramatically reduced after the first year. The only replacement costs are optional additions to the non-consumable set of books used with children and possible non-consumable professional books for teachers. Expenditures to the district/site include ongoing professional development, data processing fees, university affiliation fees if applicable, and miscellaneous supplies. The basic pricing structure is generally at a district/site level. The primary expenditures are related to initial and ongoing professional development for teachers (e.g., one-time cost of constructing a training facility if one is not available, university tuition and fees for teachers-in-training, professional books and materials). Books used with children are non-consumable and represent a one-time expenditure with annual replacements as needed. Annual data processing fees vary according to the size of the district/site, and university affiliation fees vary according to the university. Included in the published materials for teachers: Literacy Lessons Designed for Individuals includes teaching procedures and theoretical explanations of when and why a teacher would select particular procedures for particular children. An Observation Survey of Early Literacy Achievement includes screening tasks, norms, and information about reliability and validity. Not included but required: Initial training costs include university credit and fees for an academic year and the services of a registered teacher leader, access to a training facility with a one-way mirror, non-consumable books for use with children, non-consumable books for teachers. In subsequent years costs include ongoing professional development, data processing fees, university affiliation fees, optional new or replacement books for use with children, etc.
- Staff Qualified to Administer Include:
-
- Special Education Teacher
- General Education Teacher
- Reading Specialist
- Math Specialist
- EL Specialist
- Interventionist
- Student Support Services Personnel (e.g., counselor, social worker, school psychologist, etc.)
- Training Requirements:
- An academic year of training with university credit
-
For an academic year, teachers meet weekly with a registered Reading Recovery teacher leader who has completed a full year of training at a university training center to prepare for training teachers. While in training, teachers are also working with Reading Recovery students. Teachers learn to observe and discuss lessons behind a one-way mirror/glass. Course content for teacher classes focuses on the teachers’ ability to: • carefully observe and articulate children’s literacy behaviors; • select and use appropriate teaching procedures for each child; • design a series of daily lessons to meet the needs of each individual child; • critically evaluate their teaching decisions and those of their peers; • build a sound understanding of theoretical principles of reading and writing with attention to difficulties with literacy learning; • implement the intervention within the comprehensive literacy plan of the school; and • assess, monitor, and report the individual progress of each child in the intervention. Concurrent with the training, these teachers work with children in one-to-one lessons for part of the school day. Teacher leaders also make school visits and support implementation in schools. Teachers continue learning through scheduled professional development sessions in subsequent years. The key to Reading Recovery success lies with teacher expertise and decision making.
An Observation Survey of Early Literacy Achievement, 2nd Edition (Clay, 2002, 2006) is currently used for screening for literacy difficulties and assessing change over time. The observation tasks were developed over a number of years (1963-1978) and subsequently revised. The Early Detection of Reading Difficulties: A Diagnostic Survey (Clay, 1972) was followed by the first edition of the Observation Survey in 1993. These books have been trialed with thousands of children across the years and subsequent revisions followed. The six Observation Survey tasks provide a way to observe early literacy learning behaviors. Tasks have high construct and face validity. Validity and reliability data and norms are provided in the 2006 edition of the Observation Survey. The Observation Survey is also available in a bilingual Spanish version for Descubriendo la Lectura. Books used for training Reading Recovery professionals also have evolved after trials with children. Each revision also accommodated new theoretical understandings and explanations. • The Early Detection of Reading Difficulties: A Diagnostic Survey with Recovery Procedures (Clay, 1979) • The Early Detection of Reading Difficulties (Clay, 1983) • Reading Recovery: A Guidebook for Teachers in Training (Clay, 1993) • Literacy Lessons Designed for Individuals Part One and Part Two (Clay, 2005) Literacy Lessons Designed for Individuals is currently the core training text. Teaching procedures are accompanied by rationales and explanations. The book is not a script for instruction. During the training, teachers learn to select from the procedures based on the current needs of each child; teachers learn to make decisions to foster each child’s literacy learning. During the training, additional texts and articles are used to supplement the learning of the teachers and teacher leaders.
- Access to Technical Support:
- Ongoing professional development is a requirement for all Reading Recovery professionals. Several professional development sessions are scheduled yearly and include continued observation of one-to-one teaching sessions. Reading Recovery teacher leaders also provide ongoing support to teachers at their schools.
- Recommended Administration Formats Include:
-
- Individual students
- Minimum Number of Minutes Per Session:
- 30
- Minimum Number of Sessions Per Week:
- 5
- Minimum Number of Weeks:
- 12
- Detailed Implementation Manual or Instructions Available:
- Yes
- Is Technology Required?
- No technology is required.
Program Information
Descriptive Information
Please provide a description of program, including intended use:
Reading Recovery is a short-term intervention of daily one-to-one lessons that supplement good classroom teaching for the lowest-achieving first graders. The goal is to dramatically reduce the number of first- grade children with extreme difficulty learning to read and write and to reduce the cost of these learners to educational systems. The lowest literacy achievers in Grade 1 receive a half-hour lesson each school day for 12-20 weeks with a specially trained Reading Recovery teacher. Daily and weekly records provide rich information for progress monitoring. As soon as children meet grade-level expectations and can continue to learn in the classroom, their lessons are discontinued, and new students begin individual instruction. Just as in the intent of RTI, two positive outcomes are possible: (a) responding to the intervention by meeting grade-level literacy expectations (approximately 75% of the children with complete interventions) and (b) recommended for further evaluation and future support. The intent of Reading Recovery lessons is to promote accelerated learning so that students can catch up with their peers and benefit from classroom instruction without supplemental help. Each lesson is individually designed and individually delivered by specially trained teachers and includes reading familiar books, reading yesterday’s new book while the teacher takes a running record, working with letters and/or words using magnetic letters, composing a written message, assembling a cut-up story, and reading a new book. Extensive training is required for the responsive, contingent teaching in Reading Recovery. Three levels of training form a network of expertise and support: (a) university-based trainers of teacher leaders; (b) site-based teacher leaders who train teachers; and (c) school-based teachers who deliver the intervention on their campuses. Reading Recovery is an intervention with internal and external cohesion to ensure fidelity of implementation, including • a published set of standards and guidelines for teaching, implementing, and evaluating the intervention; • a royalty-free trademark license; • an annual registry completed by each Reading Recovery site that verifies compliance with standards; • intensive year-long training for all levels of Reading Recovery professionals followed by ongoing professional development and support from teacher leaders and university trainers; • a standard lesson format within which teachers make decisions about each child; • annual evaluation of outcomes for every child in Reading Recovery by the International Data Evaluation Center; and • analysis of outcome and process data by university trainers who work with sites to ensure fidelity to the design of the implementation.
The program is intended for use in the following age(s) and/or grade(s).
Age 0-3
Age 3-5
Kindergarten
First grade
Second grade
Third grade
Fourth grade
Fifth grade
Sixth grade
Seventh grade
Eighth grade
Ninth grade
Tenth grade
Eleventh grade
Twelth grade
The program is intended for use with the following groups.
Students with disabilities only
Students with learning disabilities
Students with intellectual disabilities
Students with emotional or behavioral disabilities
English language learners
Any student at risk for academic failure
Any student at risk for emotional and/or behavioral difficulties
OtherIf other, please describe:
ACADEMIC INTERVENTION: Please indicate the academic area of focus.
Early Literacy
Print knowledge/awareness
Alphabet knowledge
Phonological awareness
Phonological awarenessEarly writing
Early decoding abilities
OtherIf other, please describe:
Language
Expressive and receptive vocabulary
Grammar
Syntax
Listening comprehension
OtherIf other, please describe:
Reading
Phonological awareness
Phonics/word study
Comprehension
Fluency
Vocabulary
Spelling
OtherIf other, please describe:
Mathematics
Computation
Concepts and/or word problems
Whole number arithmetic
Comprehensive: Includes computation/procedures, problem solving, and mathematical concepts
Algebra
Fractions, decimals (rational number)
Geometry and measurement
OtherIf other, please describe:
Writing
Handwriting
Spelling
Sentence construction
Planning and revising
OtherIf other, please describe:
BEHAVIORAL INTERVENTION: Please indicate the behavior area of focus.
Externalizing Behavior
Physical Aggression
Verbal Threats
Property Destruction
Noncompliance
High Levels of Disengagement
Disruptive Behavior
Social Behavior (e.g., Peer interactions, Adult interactions)
OtherIf other, please describe:
Internalizing Behavior
Depression
Anxiety
Social Difficulties (e.g., withdrawal)
School Phobia
OtherIf other, please describe:
Acquisition and cost information
Where to obtain:
- Address
- 500 W. Wilson Bridge Road, Suite 250 Worthington, Ohio 43085-5218
- Phone Number
- 614-310-7323
- Website
- www.readingrecovery.org
Initial cost for implementing program:
- Cost
- $2807.00
- Unit of cost
- teacher
Replacement cost per unit for subsequent use:
- Cost
- Unit of cost
- Duration of license
Additional cost information:
Describe basic pricing plan and structure of the program. Also, provide information on what is included in the published program, as well as what is not included but required for implementation (e.g., computer and/or internet access)
Costs are considered at the school, site/district, or teacher level. Initial per teacher costs for a new implementation in a school would include the cost of the year-long training (costs vary according to universities granting credit), the initial purchase of non-consumable children’s books to be used with students (about $2,500), professional books, materials, and supplies (approximately $250), and data processing fees (about $57). Because costs of tuition and non-consumable books are a one-time cost, initial costs of implementing Reading Recovery can be amortized across several years. The one-time district or site cost of constructing a training facility with a one-way glass/mirror if one is not available can also be amortized over many years. The cost of Reading Recovery per trained teacher is dramatically reduced after the first year. The only replacement costs are optional additions to the non-consumable set of books used with children and possible non-consumable professional books for teachers. Expenditures to the district/site include ongoing professional development, data processing fees, university affiliation fees if applicable, and miscellaneous supplies. The basic pricing structure is generally at a district/site level. The primary expenditures are related to initial and ongoing professional development for teachers (e.g., one-time cost of constructing a training facility if one is not available, university tuition and fees for teachers-in-training, professional books and materials). Books used with children are non-consumable and represent a one-time expenditure with annual replacements as needed. Annual data processing fees vary according to the size of the district/site, and university affiliation fees vary according to the university. Included in the published materials for teachers: Literacy Lessons Designed for Individuals includes teaching procedures and theoretical explanations of when and why a teacher would select particular procedures for particular children. An Observation Survey of Early Literacy Achievement includes screening tasks, norms, and information about reliability and validity. Not included but required: Initial training costs include university credit and fees for an academic year and the services of a registered teacher leader, access to a training facility with a one-way mirror, non-consumable books for use with children, non-consumable books for teachers. In subsequent years costs include ongoing professional development, data processing fees, university affiliation fees, optional new or replacement books for use with children, etc.Program Specifications
Setting for which the program is designed.
Individual students
Small group of students
BI ONLY: A classroom of students
If group-delivered, how many students compose a small group?
Program administration time
- Minimum number of minutes per session
- 30
- Minimum number of sessions per week
- 5
- Minimum number of weeks
- 12
N/A (implemented until effective)- If intervention program is intended to occur over less frequently than 60 minutes a week for approximately 8 weeks, justify the level of intensity:
Does the program include highly specified teacher manuals or step by step instructions for implementation?- Yes
BEHAVIORAL INTERVENTION: Is the program affiliated with a broad school- or class-wide management program?-
If yes, please identify and describe the broader school- or class-wide management program: -
Does the program require technology? - No
-
If yes, what technology is required to implement your program? -
Computer or tablet
Internet connection
Other technology (please specify)
If your program requires additional technology not listed above, please describe the required technology and the extent to which it is combined with teacher small-group instruction/intervention:
Technology is not required for the intervention with children. However, required data are sent electronically to the International Data Evaluation Center (IDEC).
Training
- How many people are needed to implement the program ?
Is training for the instructor or interventionist required?- Yes
- If yes, is the necessary training free or at-cost?
- At-cost
Describe the time required for instructor or interventionist training:- An academic year of training with university credit
Describe the format and content of the instructor or interventionist training:- For an academic year, teachers meet weekly with a registered Reading Recovery teacher leader who has completed a full year of training at a university training center to prepare for training teachers. While in training, teachers are also working with Reading Recovery students. Teachers learn to observe and discuss lessons behind a one-way mirror/glass. Course content for teacher classes focuses on the teachers’ ability to: • carefully observe and articulate children’s literacy behaviors; • select and use appropriate teaching procedures for each child; • design a series of daily lessons to meet the needs of each individual child; • critically evaluate their teaching decisions and those of their peers; • build a sound understanding of theoretical principles of reading and writing with attention to difficulties with literacy learning; • implement the intervention within the comprehensive literacy plan of the school; and • assess, monitor, and report the individual progress of each child in the intervention. Concurrent with the training, these teachers work with children in one-to-one lessons for part of the school day. Teacher leaders also make school visits and support implementation in schools. Teachers continue learning through scheduled professional development sessions in subsequent years. The key to Reading Recovery success lies with teacher expertise and decision making.
What types or professionals are qualified to administer your program?
Special Education Teacher
General Education Teacher
Reading Specialist
Math Specialist
EL Specialist
Interventionist
Student Support Services Personnel (e.g., counselor, social worker, school psychologist, etc.)
Applied Behavior Analysis (ABA) Therapist or Board Certified Behavior Analyst (BCBA)
Paraprofessional
OtherIf other, please describe:
- Does the program assume that the instructor or interventionist has expertise in a given area?
-
Yes
If yes, please describe:
When selecting Reading Recovery teachers, schools are encouraged to consider teaching experience, preferably with primary-grade students. During and after the training year, Reading Recovery teachers gain expertise in observing, assessing, and monitoring progress of literacy learners as well as selecting appropriate teaching procedures for each child. Teachers build a strong theoretical foundation and knowledge base to support their work with children who are having literacy difficulties. Their expertise includes implementing the intervention in the school and collaborating with others to support each child’s learning.
Are training manuals and materials available?- Yes
-
Describe how the training manuals or materials were field-tested with the target population of instructors or interventionist and students: - An Observation Survey of Early Literacy Achievement, 2nd Edition (Clay, 2002, 2006) is currently used for screening for literacy difficulties and assessing change over time. The observation tasks were developed over a number of years (1963-1978) and subsequently revised. The Early Detection of Reading Difficulties: A Diagnostic Survey (Clay, 1972) was followed by the first edition of the Observation Survey in 1993. These books have been trialed with thousands of children across the years and subsequent revisions followed. The six Observation Survey tasks provide a way to observe early literacy learning behaviors. Tasks have high construct and face validity. Validity and reliability data and norms are provided in the 2006 edition of the Observation Survey. The Observation Survey is also available in a bilingual Spanish version for Descubriendo la Lectura. Books used for training Reading Recovery professionals also have evolved after trials with children. Each revision also accommodated new theoretical understandings and explanations. • The Early Detection of Reading Difficulties: A Diagnostic Survey with Recovery Procedures (Clay, 1979) • The Early Detection of Reading Difficulties (Clay, 1983) • Reading Recovery: A Guidebook for Teachers in Training (Clay, 1993) • Literacy Lessons Designed for Individuals Part One and Part Two (Clay, 2005) Literacy Lessons Designed for Individuals is currently the core training text. Teaching procedures are accompanied by rationales and explanations. The book is not a script for instruction. During the training, teachers learn to select from the procedures based on the current needs of each child; teachers learn to make decisions to foster each child’s literacy learning. During the training, additional texts and articles are used to supplement the learning of the teachers and teacher leaders.
Do you provide fidelity of implementation guidance such as a checklist for implementation in your manual?-
Can practitioners obtain ongoing professional and technical support? -
Yes
If yes, please specify where/how practitioners can obtain support:
Ongoing professional development is a requirement for all Reading Recovery professionals. Several professional development sessions are scheduled yearly and include continued observation of one-to-one teaching sessions. Reading Recovery teacher leaders also provide ongoing support to teachers at their schools.
Summary of Evidence Base
- Please identify, to the best of your knowledge, all the research studies that have been conducted to date supporting the efficacy of your program, including studies currently or previously submitted to NCII for review. Please provide citations only (in APA format); do not include any descriptive information on these studies. NCII staff will also conduct a search to confirm that the list you provide is accurate.
-
May, H., Sirinides, P., Gray, A., & Goldsworthy, H. (2016). Reading Recovery: An evaluation of the four-year i3 scale-up. Retrieved from: http://www.cpre.org/reading-recovery-evaluation-four-year-i3-scale
May, H., Sirinides, P., Goldworthy, H., Armijo, M., Sam, C., Gillespie, J. N., & Tognatta, N. (2015). Year One Results From the Multisite Randomized Evaluation of the i3 Scale-Up of Reading Recovery. American Educational Research Journal, 52(547-581).
Study Information
Study Citations
Schwartz, R. M. (2005). Literacy Learning of At-Risk First Grade Students in the Reading Recovery Early Intervention.. Journal of Educational Psychology, 97(2) 257-267.
Participants
- Describe how students were selected to participate in the study:
- Forty-seven Reading Recovery teachers from different schools in 14 states obtained consent forms from the children’s parents to participate in the study, submitted the names of two at-risk students to a web-based program for random assignment to first- or second-round Reading Recovery service, and submitted student data at year-end. Since comparison of first- and second-round Reading Recovery students at the transition period was critical to evaluating the intervention effect, only data from 37 teachers that included this information were considered in the data set for analysis. Incomplete sets indicated that either the first- or second-round student moved prior to the midyear transition testing. The teachers also submitted data on a low-average and a high-average student from the same classroom as the first- and second-round Reading Recovery students for a total sample of 148 first graders. The random assignment created two equivalent groups of low readers who had been identified for Reading Recovery intervention. Those students assigned to first-round Reading Recovery services were the treatment group. Those children assigned to receive Reading Recovery later in the year (second round) were the ‘business-as-usual’ control group. They could receive small group or other services available in the school other than the Reading Recovery intervention.
- Describe how students were identified as being at risk for academic failure (AI) or as having emotional or behavioral difficulties (BI):
- The Reading Recovery teachers followed the program procedures for identifying the lowest-performing first-grade students. These procedures included recommendations from the first-grade classroom teachers and then assessment with Clay’s An Observation Survey of Early Literacy Achievement (2002, 2006).
-
ACADEMIC INTERVENTION: What percentage of participants were at risk, as measured by one or more of the following criteria:
- below the 30th percentile on local or national norm, or
- identified disability related to the focus of the intervention?
- %
-
BEHAVIORAL INTERVENTION: What percentage of participants were at risk, as measured by one or more of the following criteria:
- emotional disability label,
- placed in an alternative school/classroom,
- non-responsive to Tiers 1 and 2, or
- designation of severe problem behaviors on a validated scale or through observation?
- %
- Specify which condition is the submitted intervention:
- The treatment group is labeled as 1st round. These children received the Reading Recovery intervention services across the first 12 to 20 weeks of first grade.
- Specify which condition is the control condition:
- The control group is labeled 2nd round. These children were the ‘business-as-usual’ control group. They received the same classroom instruction as the 1st round students, but did not begin to receive Reading Recovery services until after the transition testing period. The transition testing marks the end of the random control group study.
- If you have a third, competing condition, in addition to your control and intervention condition, identify what the competing condition is (data from this competing condition will not be used):
Using the tables that follow, provide data demonstrating comparability of the program group and control group in terms of demographics.
Grade Level
| Demographic | Program Number |
Control Number |
Effect Size: Cox Index for Binary Differences |
|---|---|---|---|
| Age less than 1 | |||
| Age 1 | |||
| Age 2 | |||
| Age 3 | |||
| Age 4 | |||
| Age 5 | |||
| Kindergarten | |||
| Grade 1 | 100.0% | 100.0% | 0.00 |
| Grade 2 | |||
| Grade 3 | |||
| Grade 4 | |||
| Grade 5 | |||
| Grade 6 | |||
| Grade 7 | |||
| Grade 8 | |||
| Grade 9 | |||
| Grade 10 | |||
| Grade 11 | |||
| Grade 12 |
Race–Ethnicity
| Demographic | Program Number |
Control Number |
Effect Size: Cox Index for Binary Differences |
|---|---|---|---|
| African American | 130.6% | 105.6% | Invalid |
| American Indian | |||
| Asian/Pacific Islander | 8.3% | 0.0% | 2.71 |
| Hispanic | 33.3% | 41.7% | 0.23 |
| White | 105.6% | 130.6% | Invalid |
| Other |
Socioeconomic Status
| Demographic | Program Number |
Control Number |
Effect Size: Cox Index for Binary Differences |
|---|---|---|---|
| Subsidized Lunch | 166.7% | 158.3% | Invalid |
| No Subsidized Lunch | 111.1% | 119.4% | Invalid |
Disability Status
| Demographic | Program Number |
Control Number |
Effect Size: Cox Index for Binary Differences |
|---|---|---|---|
| Speech-Language Impairments | |||
| Learning Disabilities | |||
| Behavior Disorders | |||
| Emotional Disturbance | |||
| Intellectual Disabilities | |||
| Other | |||
| Not Identified With a Disability |
ELL Status
| Demographic | Program Number |
Control Number |
Effect Size: Cox Index for Binary Differences |
|---|---|---|---|
| English Language Learner | |||
| Not English Language Learner |
Gender
| Demographic | Program Number |
Control Number |
Effect Size: Cox Index for Binary Differences |
|---|---|---|---|
| Female | 108.3% | 163.9% | Invalid |
| Male | 169.4% | 113.9% | Invalid |
Mean Effect Size
For any substantively (e.g., effect size ≥ 0.25 for pretest or demographic differences) or statistically significant (e.g., p < 0.05) pretest differences between groups in the descriptions below, please describe the extent to which these differences are related to the impact of the treatment. For example, if analyses were conducted to determine that outcomes from this study are due to the intervention and not demographic characteristics, please describe the results of those analyses here.
Design
- What method was used to determine students' placement in treatment/control groups?
- Random
- Please describe the assignment method or the process for defining treatment/comparison groups.
- The study includes a random treatment and control group. It also includes low-average and high-average comparison groups of children from the same classrooms as the treatment and control group children. Since these classroom groups were not initially equivalent to the low students who were randomly assigned to the treatment and control groups, they are not part of the main analysis.
-
What was the unit of assignment? - Students
- If other, please specify:
-
Please describe the unit of assignment: -
What unit(s) were used for primary data analysis? -
Schools
Teachers
Students
Classes
Other
If other, please specify:
-
Please describe the unit(s) used for primary data analysis:
Fidelity of Implementation
- How was the program delivered?
-
Individually
Small Group
Classroom
If small group, answer the following:
- Average group size
- Minimum group size
- Maximum group size
What was the duration of the intervention (If duration differed across participants, settings, or behaviors, describe for each.)?
- Weeks
- 16.00
- Sessions per week
- 5.00
- Duration of sessions in minutes
- 30.00
- What were the background, experience, training, and ongoing support of the instructors or interventionists?
- This was a standard Reading Recovery implementation. Teachers had participated in the initial training year and ongoing professional development.
- Describe when and how fidelity of treatment information was obtained.
- Reading Recovery teachers follow a standard lesson format, but make individual decisions within that framework to accelerate the progress of individual students. Training ensures fidelity of treatment. Teacher leaders also observe lessons and monitor fidelity as part of their roles. All of the teachers participating in this study had completed the professional development experiences required to be certified Reading Recovery teachers and were continuing to participate in ongoing professional development, which includes visits by Reading Recovery teacher leaders to observe lessons with students.
- What were the results on the fidelity-of-treatment implementation measure?
- This is a study of an intervention that has been brought to scale at a national and international level and has 25 years of standard implementation protocols in the United States. The lesson framework and extensive professional development ensure a high level of treatment fidelity. Individual differences among teachers and decisions within the lesson that are intended to accelerate a particular child’s learning are part of the intervention.
- Was the fidelity measure also used in control classrooms?
Measures and Results
Measures Broader :
| Targeted Measure | Reverse Coded? | Reliability | Relevance | Exposure |
|---|
| Broader Measure | Reverse Coded? | Reliability | Relevance | Exposure |
|---|
| Administrative Data Measure | Reverse Coded? | Relevance |
|---|
Effect Size
Effect size represents the how much performance changed because of the intervention. The larger the effect size, the greater the impact participating in the intervention had.
According to guidelines from the What Works Clearinghouse, an effect size of 0.25 or greater is “substantively important.” Additionally, effect sizes that are statistically significant are more trustworthy than effect sizes of the same magnitude that are not statistically significant.
Effect Size Dial
The purpose of the effect size dial is to help users understand the strength of a tool relative to other tools on the Tools Chart.
- The range represents where most effect sizes fall within reading or math based on effect sizes from tools on the Tools Chart.
- The orange pointer shows the average effect size for this study.
Targeted Measures (Full Sample)
Average Reading Effect Size
| Measure | Sample Type | Effect Size |
|---|---|---|
| Average across all targeted measures | Full Sample | 1.13* |
| * = p ≤ 0.05; † = Vendor did not provide necessary data for NCII to calculate effect sizes. | ||
Broader Measures (Full Sample)
| Measure | Sample Type | Effect Size |
|---|---|---|
| Average across all broader measures | Full Sample | † |
| * = p ≤ 0.05; † = Vendor did not provide necessary data for NCII to calculate effect sizes. | ||
Administrative Measures (Full Sample)
| Measure | Sample Type | Effect Size |
|---|---|---|
| Average across all admin measures | Full Sample | -- |
| * = p ≤ 0.05; † = Vendor did not provide necessary data for NCII to calculate effect sizes. | ||
Targeted Measures (Subgroups)
| Measure | Sample Type | Effect Size |
|---|---|---|
| * = p ≤ 0.05; † = Vendor did not provide necessary data for NCII to calculate effect sizes. | ||
Broader Measures (Subgroups)
| Measure | Sample Type | Effect Size |
|---|---|---|
| * = p ≤ 0.05; † = Vendor did not provide necessary data for NCII to calculate effect sizes. | ||
Administrative Measures (Subgroups)
| Measure | Sample Type | Effect Size |
|---|---|---|
| * = p ≤ 0.05; † = Vendor did not provide necessary data for NCII to calculate effect sizes. | ||
- For any substantively (e.g., effect size ≥ 0.25 for pretest or demographic differences) or statistically significant (e.g., p < 0.05) pretest differences, please describe the extent to which these differences are related to the impact of the treatment. For example, if analyses were conducted to determine that outcomes from this study are due to the intervention and not pretest characteristics, please describe the results of those analyses here.
- Please explain any missing data or instances of measures with incomplete pre- or post-test data.
- If you have excluded a variable or data that are reported in the study being submitted, explain the rationale for exclusion:
- Describe the analyses used to determine whether the intervention produced changes in student outcomes:
- Repeated Measures Analysis. For each of the Observation Survey measures, a 4 (group) X 3 (test period) repeated measures analysis of variance was conducted to examine intervention effectiveness. The remaining measures were analyzed using a 4 (group) X 2 (test period) repeated measures analysis of variance. Tables 2, 3 and 4 report the means and standard deviations for the pretreatment, transition, and end-of-year test periods, respectively, for the four groups — first round Reading Recovery, second round Reading Recovery, low-average classroom and high-average classroom. A significant group by test period interaction for the Observation Survey variables was followed by a simple effects analysis among groups at each test period. For the four variables that were not measured prior to the intervention period, a significant main effect of group, or group by test period interaction, was followed by either main effect comparison or simple comparison, respectively. Since the random assignment to first- or second-round Reading Recovery service was the most critical comparison, and there were ten of these comparisons at the transition period, one for each dependent variable, a conservative alpha level for these comparisons was set at p < .005. Exact probabilities were reported for marginal p values between .05 and .005 (Keppel, 1982). Effect sizes (Cohen, 1988) were calculated only for significant simple comparisons between the first- and second-round Reading Recovery students at the transition period because these were the only comparisons that reflect treatment effects for randomly assigned groups. These effect sizes were calculated as the mean difference between groups divided by the pooled standard deviation.
Additional Research
- Is the program reviewed by WWC or E-ESSA?
- WWC & E-ESSA
- Summary of WWC / E-ESSA Findings :
What Works Clearinghouse Review
Beginning Readers Protocol
Effectiveness: Reading Recovery® was found to have positive effects on alphabetics and general reading achievement and potentially positive effects on fluency and comprehension.
Studies Reviewed: 3 studies meet standards out of 79 studies total
English Language Learners Protocol
Effectiveness: No studies of Reading Recovery® that fall within the scope of the English Language Learners (ELL) review protocol meet What Works Clearinghouse (WWC) evidence standards. The lack of studies meeting WWC evidence standards means that, at this time, the WWC is unable to draw any conclusions based on research about the effectiveness or ineffectiveness of Reading Recovery® on ELL.
Studies Reviewed: N/A
Evidence for ESSA
Program Outcomes: Reading Recovery has been evaluated in four qualifying studies (many other studies did not qualify because they only reported outcomes for successful students, or used developer-made measures). In comparison to control groups, the average effect size across the four studies was +0.43 on measures such as ITBS, CAT, Woodcock, and Gates. These outcomes qualify Reading Recovery for the ESSA “Strong” category, and for the “Solid Outcomes” rating (at least two studies with effect sizes of at least +0.20).
Number of Studies: 4
Average Effect Size: 0.43
- How many additional research studies are potentially eligible for NCII review?
- 3
- Citations for Additional Research Studies :
Baenen, N., Bernhole, A., Dulaney, C., & Banks, K. (1997). Reading Recovery: Long-term progress after three cohorts. Journal of Education for Students Placed at Risk, 2(2), 161.
Pinnell, G. S., DeFord, D. E., & Lyons, C. A. (1988). Reading Recovery: Early intervention for at-risk first graders (Educational Research Service Monograph). Arlington, VA: Educational Research Service.
Pinnell, G. S., Lyons, C. A., DeFord, D. E., Bryk, A. S., & Seltzer, M. (1994). Comparing instructional models for the literacy education of high-risk first graders. Reading Research Quarterly, 29(1), 8–39.
Data Collection Practices
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